The theory of Initial Ocean and atmosphere Essay Example for Free

The theory of Initial Ocean and atmosphere Essay In 1953 Stanley Miller put the atmosphere consisting of hydrogen, methane, ammonia and steam to the experiment with electricity discharges. At that some of the numerous amino acids forming albumen were generated. However he succeeded to get only four of twenty amino acids essential for any life-forms to appear. Even in fifty years scientists are still unable to get experimentally all the twenty amino acids needed under conditions that can be called possible. Miller supposed that the initial Earth atmosphere was similar to that inside his experimental camera. Why? He and his colleague expressed the reason later:†Synthesis of biologically important compounds takes place only under restoration conditions (without any free oxygen in atmosphere)†. But according to his opponents oxygen is essential for the beginnings of life on Earth. The difficulty arisen is described by Hitching as following: â€Å"If there was any oxygen in the air the first amino acid would never arise and if there wasn’t it would be destroyed by the Space radiation. That’s highly interesting, Hitching says, that during Miller’s experiment with electricity discharges the four amino acids got survived only because they were taken out of the area of the discharges. If they continued to be there the discharge would decompose them. Supposing the amino acids to somehow get to the oceans and to escape the solar radiation of atmosphere there. And what then? Hitching explains: â€Å"Under the water cover there is not enough energy for the activation of the following chemical reactions; the water itself hampers the synthesis of complex molecules†. Chemist Richard Dickerson considers the following:† It’s hard to imagine polymerization taking place in the initial ocean, because the presence of water assists depolymerization only†. Biochemist George World agrees with the above saying:† It’s much more likely for the spontaneous dilution to happen in water â€Å". All the arguments given above clearly contradict to Stanley Miller’s theory. Yet, it’s still the only one explaining the reality we have.

Importance Of Oligopolistic Characteristics

Importance Of Oligopolistic Characteristics This paper focuses on the importance of oligopolistic characteristics in the global container shipping industry. It is difficult to examine this market although containerization has standardized the shipping industry. My approach to meet this controversial issue is to divide between three levels: the industry, alliances and the trade level. In my investigation I also use a graphic explanation, the concentration level of the industry, the cobweb model and the kinked demand curve. The results allow us to determine how influential is the concentration level, the competition and alliances in the container shipping industry. Michail Archontakis (377602) Economics 7 December 2012 INTRODUCTION The global container shipping industry can be characterized as an oligopoly. Moreover, we can say there are few sellers and the provided services or products are quite similar. It is necessary to examine the market structure in three main levels: the industry, the alliances that exist and the trade level. The market is characterized by globalization. As a result, there is a need to satisfy customers demands and invest in resources as well as in the development of the new technology. So we can see the growth of the world economy and the world trade. Shipping companies have two choices, form an alliance or the other one is mergers and acquisitions. I will also use a graphic explanation to describe the way and how the industry has developed over the past years. Lastly, the purpose of this assignment is to introduce the importance of the oligopolistic characteristics in the global container shipping industry. THE INDUSTRY The market has mainly consisted by containers and containerization has developed it in a more standardized approach. In the global container shipping industry, we could meet collusions which are called as shipping conferences. We all know that their main interest is to fix freight rates in certain routes and form barriers, in the entry of new firms. Pricing in the industry means under the table agreements between shippers and carriers. By this way, they can achieve economies of scale which can lead to a small number of firms (Marlow and Nair, 2008). As stated by Haralambides in 2000 two factors are crucial in the understanding of conference freight rates: unit values and stowage factors. After the abolition of the anti-monopoly privilege of freight conferences (18 October 2008, Regulation 4056/86), and due to the trend of growing consolidation. The market is developing into a more collusive market, where operational agreements becoming more and more vital. The market has become more concentrated, and the smaller operators conduct a market share of less than 1% per each. As we can observe from table 1 above top 10 carriers, have a market share of 63.5% (www.alphaliner.com). The market share of the top ten carriers was 49.3% in 2000 (www.alphaliner.com). There is a tremendous increase in market share as well as in total TEUs. Moreover, few firms fit most of the market power and probably can determine in a high level the industry and the chief shipping routes. They can create entry barriers and also make agreements on the freight rates. It is especially valuable for firms to cooperate and some state acting like monopolists. As a result, each firm must be aware of the other players actions. World Ranking of Maritime Shippers, by Shipping Capacity Source: Alphaliner This oligopolistic characteristic makes the industry more complex and needs to cover many factors. Moreover, to deal with customers international requirements, the development of ever larger container ships, upgrades in technology, increasing competition and high consolidation. Leading to globalization where few firms dominate the leading trade routes and to the event of multi-trade strategic alliances. This change is also notable for the customers. Furthermore, they can now have more requirements and benefits. Nowadays, they can request faster shipping, more frequent services and lower costs as well as to know at any time the exact location and condition of their cargo. Container shipping companies have become more unified with new technologies and also have improved the contribution significantly quality. We now have larger vessels, and they can benefit from economies of scale. Surely, the oligopolistic environment has raise competition and has expanded world economy as well as world trades. ALLIANCES Shipping companies have two choices form a strategic alliance and the other one are the acquisitions and mergers. In order to reach economies of scale, scope and network alliances have developed in two ways. Moreover, there are core alliances with international partners and the other one is multi-consortia networks of slot. This is a general connection in oligopolistic markets and of considerable importance. An alliance helps to gain greater market shares and contain more effectively the trade routes as well as, the capacity. There are five key ideas in the movement of alliances in the global container shipping industry. Furthermore, it can do more effective wider geographically routes. Secondly, they can create their ships in a more global scope. The risk is less because it is shareable now. They can provide more repeated services to their customers, meaning more frequent schedules. Lastly, economies of scale become more apparent, and there is also an increase in the size of the ships (Sato, 2002). It is noteworthy to analyze the three of the most powerful alliances over the past years. Furthermore, these three alliances started with an agreement on collaboration for east-west trades and then extended to north-south services. The first alliance we will examine is New World Alliance. It includes mainly APL, MOL and HMM. Its overall capacity in TEUs is 1.161.468 and owns 282 vessels (alphaliner.com). Imagine that in 2000 the capacity of this alliance was 325.487 and the number of vessels 90 (Midoro and Pitto,2000). As we can see, it right increased its market share, and this is highly influential in oligopolistic markets because it can alter the market as well as conduct more properly the capacity. Another notable alliance is the Grand Alliance. In February 2006, after PO exodus the new Grand Alliance formed by Hapag-Lloyd, OOCL, and NYK Line. Its overall capacity in TEUs is 1.187.607 and owns 288 vessels (alphaliner.com). In 1996, it owned only 255.705 TEUs and 72 vessels (Midoro and Pitto,2000). Grand alliance manages twelve services in the transpacific trade. Lastly, this alliance has showed the most reliable configuration comparing to the other two alliances. The greatest alliance is CKYH with key partners Hanjin, Yang Ming, K Line and COSCO. It counts 1.548.508 TEUs and 400 vessels (alphaliner.com). It manages eight services on the Europe Asia route which has the largest capacity in TEUs. Surely, this alliance has a significant market share and also is highly competitive. Of course, alliances have a significant impact in the market share, but it is difficult to cooperate as the size of the group increases. They choose to act like monopolists because they can affect the price. Competition makes contrary to other firms to play or join in the market. This characteristic is of particularly importance in order to survive in this tough market where overcapacity and decreasing demand may be serious problems. Firms may find many reasons why to join an alliance: strategic reasons, operational reasons, in order to increase or decrease connectivity and capacity, to raise or remove a service, to merge or demerge services and to provide slots for charter. (Panayides, 2011) TRADE LEVEL We will examine the trade level of two routes, Black Sea Far East and US trade. Moreover, we will focus on the trade lines with port ranges at both ends (Brooks, 2000). In the route Black Sea Far East the top seven firms have a market share of total 89%, so the other firms contain only the rest 11%. Surely, there is an exceptionally high percent of concentration in this trade route. Moreover, MSC holds 23,15%, Maersk Line 20,33%, CMA-CGM 13,81%, Zim 13,55%, CSAV Norasia 11,64%, Hapag Lloyd 4,99% and K Line 1,53% (www.americanshipper.com). We can conclude that a tight oligopoly exists in the trade line of Black Sea Far East. The production rose, and the price decreased because the firms now hold strong shares and perform more like monopolists. Furthermore, it is difficult for new firms to enter this lane. The other trade line that we will examine is US which is more complicated than the previous one. Moreover, the top ten firms fit nearly a 65% of the total market share. So we can speak also that in the trade line exists an oligopoly, but the firms are much more and carry less market shares. Maersk Line market share is 15,27%, Evergreen 7,67%, Mediterranean Shg Co 7,20%, Hanjin 6,54%, APL 6,18%, Hapag Lloyd 6,05%, COSCO Container Lines 4,28%, OOCL 4,26%, NYK 4,04% and China Shg C.L 3,90% (www.americanshipper.com). A close exam of this market shows us that competition is greater, but the market is larger and remarkably attractive to new firms. As a result, if we operate efficiently the oligopolistic characteristics firms will increase their market shares, and it will be more difficult for new firms to enter the market. Of course, it is difficult to cooperate efficiently when the size of the group increases, but can handle more reasonable the capacity and the competition something that is particularly powerful. After analyzing these two different trade lines, we understood the meaning of the existence of the oligopolistic characteristics. Moreover, capacity can be handled more efficiently and control competition by increasing your shares. GRAPHIC EXPLANATION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF OLIGOPOLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS IN THE GLOBAL CONTAINER SHIPPING INDUSTRY Table 2I think a better explanation can be given by using a graph to indicate the importance of the oligopolistic characteristics in the global container shipping industry. Moreover, we know from theory that in perfect competition demand curve intersects Marginal Cost curve at the market price P* and it supplies quantity Q* (Mankiw, 2011). The firms in this graph are price takers because there are no entry barriers. Now let see what an oligopolistic firm will make. It will reduce quantity to Q0 and at the same time will increase the price P0 until Marginal Cost equals Marginal Revenue. However, a deadweight loss (consumer and producer) can be created, meaning welfare losses to the economy. Lastly, we can observe a surplus for the firm as an oligopoly profit. This result can be represented in the global container shipping industry by selling at greater prices and offering lower services. They can use smaller containers, slower services as the market becomes more oligopolistic. Secondly, firms may try to increase their market power or insert entry barriers. These two can cause to collusion practices. Moreover, greater concentration can create collusions and contract coordination costs. Nevertheless, there are also benefits from the increase in concentration. A firm may increase its profits by taking market power from its opponents. This action can cause sensitive to the firm to provide a better product or service. In the shipping industry, a better product or service means to provide larger containers or to invest in research and development. Moreover, a firm may invest in order to keep consumers loyal to her. So companies can behave more competitively. A better explanation for the price and quantity can be given by the cobweb model. The cobweb model or cobweb theory can explain the cyclical demand and supply the container shipping industry. Moreover, when the price is high P1 the quantity is low Q1 and lower than Q2. In the next period (Q2-Q1) will reduce the price to P2. However, now Q2 is greater than Q3 meaning (Q2-Q3) will raise the price to P3. So we can conclude that when there is excessive demand price will increase and fall when there is excessive supply. Concluding, demand and supply, are both quite flexible in the global container shipping industry, specifically in an annual base. The importance is that freight rates are flexible and negotiable between shippers and carriers. Marginal cost can be considered remarkably low. Lastly, in short-run when a rapid growth may occur in the demand can be faced sufficient. The kinked demand curve can describe the behavior of the firms in oligopoly market. Moreover, the model predicts that firms do not compete in price and try to keep the price stable over time. However, in short-term there may be price fluctuations and firms may try to gain some extra market power. The importance is that firms will use other methods to increase market share than price competition. Furthermore, they can provide higher quality, more frequent services and other upgrades to keep their costumers loyal. As the market is acting like an oligopoly, it has resulted in two main trends. First, there has been an increase in container ship sizes. Secondly, there has been an important advance in container throughput. Lastly, it has reduced the costs of transportation and local economies have been transformed to global economies. CONCLUSION The global container shipping industry is primarily an oligopoly (few players which offer similar services or products). I tried to introduce the importance of the oligopolistic characteristics in this market. Moreover, I noticed that large alliances control the majority of the total market share and also high concentration exists even in the trade routes. Highly concentrated markets experience in many occasions to collusions or cartels. It is particularly dangerous due to anti-trust laws, especially after the abolishment of the anti-monopoly immunity. However, such agreements are extremely valuable for the participating firms. Moreover, economies of scale can develop by using larger vessels and also provide superior quality of services. It is better off to combine, but it is extremely difficult especially when the size of the group increases. From the graphic explanation, we concluded that it is helpful to produce relatively small quantity and push prices above marginal cost. Nevert heless, it is up to the firms if they are going to have negative or positive results. In my opinion, the oligopolistic characteristics in the global container shipping industry led the market to grow and become competent to handle the occurrence of overcapacity and increasing fuel costs. Probably in the future stronger alliances and fewer firms will occur in the market, which is extremely influential in order to thrive and remain in such a demanding industry.

Abortions Should Be Stopped :: Abortion Pro Choice Essays

Abortions are one of the many things that everyone has an opinion on. As defined by the 2012 Merriam-Webster dictionary, an Encyclopedia Britannica Company, an abortion is, â€Å"the termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed by the death of the embryo or fetus as a spontaneous expulsion of a human fetus during the first 12 weeks of gestation--miscarriage, the induced expulsion of a human fetus, or the expulsion of a fetus by a domestic animal often due to infection at any time before completion of pregnancy.† Abortions have always been and will probably always be a controversial topic in which everyone will not agree upon. In the midst of the controversy, two groups have emerged. These groups are referred to as pro-life and pro-choice. According to Gale Opposing Viewpoints in Context, pro-life supporters claim that life begins at conception, therefore, abortion at any stage in the pregnancy is murder. They believe that life is valuable and the life of the unborn baby has the same rights as the mother. Pro-choice supporters, on the other hand, claim that it is the woman’s right to choose what she does with her body. These pro-abortionists claim that anti-abortionists are truly against the rights of women and free choice rather than the termination of the fetus. Pro-life and pro-choice advocates differ in many of their opinions, specifically, concerning when life begins, affects abortions have on the mother, and how politics and religion play a role in abortions. In order to fully understand any topic, a complete explanation is required. Therefore, the history of abortions and different procedures used are no exception. Abortions have been around for thousands of years. However, in the eighteen hundreds abortions in the United States became illegal. Due to the lack of medical education, procedures and surgeries such as abortions were very dangerous. As medical advancements were made, women still had to rely on back ally abortions which usually resulted in the harm of thousands of women. Abortions remained illegal, despite the medical advancements largely impart to the fact that physicians did not want to share their patients with other practitioners. The American Medical Association stated that abortions were wrong and unsafe. Therefore, according to the National Abortion Federation, abortions were then made into a â€Å"physicians-only† practice because they could be performed legally in order to save the woman’s life.

The Yellow Wallpaper :: essays research papers

In The Yellow Wallpaper, a short story by Charlotte Gilman, there are many symbols within the text that one can construe a myriad of ways. One of the most prominent and perhaps the most important symbol is the titled yellow wallpaper. To the main character, Jane, the wallpaper is at first a nuisance, then an obsession, and finally salvation. The material of the paper itself represents Jane's everyday life. The illogical pattern that decorates it, reflects the absence of logic in her mind. The very color of the paper depicts the illness that yellows her sight and imprisons her within an unpredictable life. The wallpaper is at first a great annoyance to Jane; she claims that it is confusing and contradicting. Because her disease confuses her mind and contradicts her logic, the paper parallels her mental state at this point. Desperately attempting to unravel the mystery she imagines in the wallpaper, she becomes obsessed with deciphering its meaning. As her illness progresses, she begins to hallucinate and finally concludes that there is a woman trapped within that 'pointless pattern.'; Jane knows that she is the only one who can see the woman and, therefore, the woman's only chance of freedom. Slowly detaching from reality, Jane becomes the woman within the paper not only because of her obsession with it, but because of its parallel to her own life. In her final step toward insanity, she tears the paper off the walls to release the woman and herself. When her husband finds her, with the wallpaper and her sanity about her feet, she forcefully exclaims, 'I've got out at last...in spite of you and Jane. And I've pulled off most of the paper, so you can't put me back.

Hydroponics :: essays research papers

Hydroponics Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  NAME HERE and I became fascinated by hydroponics and the idea that one doesn't have to get their hands dirty to be a great gardener, and if your like us that's a good thing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea of hydroponics has been around since the pyramids where build, but in all these years it never seemed to catch on. It took about forty-six hundred years before the first scientist took a look at hydroponics and adapted it to grow crops, this was a professor at the University of California, and the result was a 25 foot tomato plant that had to be harvest by a ladder. Thus hydroponics was reborn and has been advancing ever since. Yet up to 5 years ago the home grower and generally the public didn't know about hydroponics. It was only being used by commercial growers. But now it has caught on, and resulted in this experiment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When thinking about hydroponics one must think about the applications of hydroponics. Not only dose hydroponics produce bigger, better, and more healthier plants than the traditional dirt, but it can also be greatly beneficial on things like submarines, space stations, off-shore oil rigs, or any where else where dirt is hard to come by.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During this experiment we'll be looking for which plant life well do best with hydroponics, by measuring which plant has grown the highest or bushiest. We also well be looking for green and healthy looking leaves on the plants. We have no idea what the results might be, so this should be an exciting experiment. Problem   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Which form of plant life will thrive the most in a hydroponics enrichment. Will it be Tomatoes our fruit, Peas our vegetable, Tinkerbell flowers, or Beans a legume?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First we selected a suitable PVC pipe and cut it into a 4 foot long piece. Next we cut four holes into the pipe with a jigsaw. After that we drilled two holes for the brass tee's to fit into. Next we glued on the two caps. After that we drilled two holes, one for the bucket to rest on, and the other for the plastic hose to go into. Then we glued the 20mm pipe into one of the holes. After that we cut our 4 inch PVC pipe and glued the cap to it. Then we drilled two holes into the pipe, and inserted two brass nosles into the holes we just drilled. Now take the plastic hose and cut it into 4 piece. One piece is for draining, one is for sub reservoir, and two are to separate the sub

Theories of Translation Essay

1. Introduction Translation, oral or written, is probably as old as the spoken or written word. Throughout the ages, famous writers have tried their hand at â€Å"the art of translatingâ€Å". Translation is usually defined as the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by the means of an equivalent target-language text. It can be also described as an expression of a sense from one language to another as well as transmission of a written or spoken language to another. However, it is a very broad notion that can be comprehended in a lot of various ways. It is also a multi-staged, creative process. Translation offers us the experience and attitudes of another culture or mentality. We cannot imagine a world without the translations of literary master pieces from all countries. The role of translation is to overcome cultural and linguistic barriers among nations. It is a key process in the development of global connectedness. A translator has several identities. First, a translator is a reader, who should know the text and its social and cultural background. He/she should also try to understand the original author`s feelings and thoughts about life and art. Secondly, a translator is a writer, because he must master two or more languages, and have the professional writer`s knowledge about the languages. Thirdly, a translator is a creator who is able to understand the source text well and to recreate the text which is faithful to the source text. If he is a real artist and a good craftsman, his work may even surpass the original. Fourthly, a translator is a researcher. The literature translation is dependent on literature study, which is the premise of translation. A translator`s four identities are mixed and integrated. Nevertheless, regardless of the degree of embellishment, translation cannot avoid altering the work. An American professor, scholar, linguist and polyglot, Werner Winter wrote that perfect translation was impossible. In his opinion, words, like marble, have certain intrinsic qualities that are indivisible from the form they take. That`s why he compares the translator to a sculptor who attempts to replicate a marble statue without the benefit of marble. But, translation is a worthwhile enterprise, despite the built-in flows. Because of our curiosity about other cultures, translation will likely never go out of fashion. Globalization overcomes spatial barriers, thus resulting in the mobility of people and objects; and a proper contact between different linguistic communities. It is manifested not only in the creation of global market, but also in the significance of travel and international movement of people (mass tourism, business travelling, migration and exile) and in the consolidation of a global communication system that distributes images and texts to any place in the world. These developments emphasize the significance of translation, which has been a key of global communication for decades. Some language theorist emphasize that translation has been neglected in the current literature on globalization. However, although the practice of translating is long established, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline until the second half of the twentieth century. Before that, translation had normally been an element of language learning in modern language courses. (Munday, 2001:7). The globalization theory focuses on mobility and deterritoriallzation, trying to obscure the complexities involved in overcoming cultural and linguistic barriers and to make the role of translation less important. However, many scholars indicate that translation helps us not only to get a better insight into the world, but to get to know ourselves better. The practice of translation comprises the selection and importation of cultural goods from outside a given circuit, and their transformation into terms which the receiving community can understand, if only in linguistic terms, and which it thus recognizes, to some extent, at least, as its own. And because each translation offers its own, over determined, distinct construction of â€Å"otherness† of the imported text, we can learn a  great deal from these cultural constructions – and from the construction of self which accompanies them. The paradigms and templates which a culture uses to build images of foreign offer privileged insight into self- definition. (Riccardi, 2002:17). 2. Theories of Translation There are many translation theories because translating can be viewed from a lot of various perspectives. Some translators claim that they have no theory of translation. But many linguists emphasize that every translator has his own theory of translation. Some persons object to a theory of translation; first of all, because it  seems unnecessary or even misleading. This is seriously true of some wrong theories of translation, but everyone has a theory of translation as to what one should do, how it should be done, and why. Such a theory may be overt or covert; it may be well defined or only vaguely felt. The truth of the matter is that everyone does have a theory of what one should do in translating, and many of these theories are quite inadequate. Good translations inevitably represent effective theories; in other words, organized sets of principles and procedures. A theory,  however, is more than simply a list of rules, for no list could ever cover everything which a translator must or can do. The theory is an organized set of principles pointing the way to finding proper solutions. (Jin and Nida, 2006:7). Translation theorists are usually worried about differences between literary and non-literary text, between poetry and prose, etc. There are many different theories of translation. One reason for that is the fact is that the process of translating can be seen from a lot of various points of view. The other reason is that translating has existed since the beginning of human history. Many language experts point out that traditional translation theorists divided translation into two types. Traditional translation theorists divided translation into two types: literary and non-literary. In literary translation (i. e. , the translation of literature) the translators were both concerned with â€Å"sense† and â€Å"style†. But in non-literary translation the emphasis was on sense. It was meant not to be â€Å"word for word† but â€Å"sense for sense† translation. In the later half of the twentieth century with the advent of Structuralism, Deconstruction and Reader-Response Criticism, Translation Studies took a new turn. (Das, 2008:27). Even nowadays, despite the great variety of translation theories, we don`t have any complete theory of translation. The main reason for that is the fact that translating is utterly a process which depends upon numerous disciplines: neurophysiology, communication theory, psychology, cultural anthropology and linguistics. Actually, it seems inappropriate to speak of â€Å"theories of translation†, since all that has been achieved are several sagacious perspectives on this complicated attempt. If we want to understand the nature of translation, the processes and procedures associated with all kinds of translations must be the center of our attention. Besides, we should point out different attitudes towards the complex task of translating, particular directions which provide good comprehension of interlingual communication. The four major perspectives on the problems of translating are: the philological perspective, the linguistic perspective, the communicative perspective and the sociosemiotic perspective. They should be regarded as complementary and supplementary. On the other hand, they show a historical development of translation. When there are differences in translation, we ask ourselves which of several translations should be the right translation. However, many scholars emphasize that different translations at different points in time â€Å"reflect different style and different ideas about translation†. (Rubel and Rosman, 2003:14). 3. Philologucal Perspective on Translation During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe, the philological perspective on translation was first and foremost concentrated on â€Å"faithfulness† of translation. The philological theories of translation were based on a philological approach to literary analysis and they were concerned with all kinds of stylistic features and rhetorical devices. This approach emphasizes: 1. the source of the thematic and formal features of the text; 2. the stylistic peculiarities of the author; 3. the thematic strructure. The philological approach to translation is source-oriented, author-centered and it does not examine the reasons that account for certain translation behaviour. The philological theories of translation have been concerned primarily with literary texts. Generally, the scholar`s discussions were about the degree of freedom that should be allowed, particulary in the case of Bible translation. Nevertheless, many translators accomplished masterly in combining sensitivity to style. Ocatavio Paz explained the most imprtant limitations of the philological perspective. In the field of verbal expression, Paz defines the function of words both in a poetic and prose text and †here again the emphasiz is on the recognition of the plurality of meaning†. (Schulte and Biguenet, 1992:7). Words create connotations that reflect multiple ways of interpreting the text. A lot of language experts protested strongly against the domination of philology and its methodology in translation theory, with the result that many people began to recognize the necessity of a more linguistic orientation for translation theory and practise. 4. Lingustic Perspective on Translation The developement of linguistic perspective can be attributed to two principal factors: 1. the application of the rapidly expanding science of lingustics to several different areas of intellectual activity (language learning, cognitive antrophology, and semiotics), and 2. machine translation. Linguistic theories of translation are based on a comparision of the linguistic structures of source and receptor texts rather than on a comparision of literary genres and stylistic features. Linguistic approach refers to the approach which makes linguistics the key in translating. Linguistics and the growth of linguistically oriented theory are closely related. Linguistic perspective reflects the trend of language study. Translation studies fought for a proper place of its own. Linguistic approach has largely contributed to the initial scientifization of translation studies. Through the use of transformations, Noah Chomsky and his collegues added a new influental sphere to language structure. Several philosophers have made their indirect improvements of the linguistic perspective as well. A lot of books on translating and on correlations in language structures were published during this period. However, this approach to translation has tended to neglect the semantics of lexical structures. In the second place, this kind of perspective depends too much on the ideal speaker and hearer. There are no such ideal individuals, and the translator must be concerned with the various types of limitations that actual speakers and hearers have. In the third place, linguistic approach to translation neglected verbal communication, and language cannot be discussed as though verbal communication occurs in a cultural vacuum. 5. Communicative Perspective on Translation. Dissatisfaction with a strictly linguistic approach to translation is evidenced in Eugene Nida`s relating translation to a communicative theory, rather than a specific linguistic theory. The book From One Language to Another (de Ward and Nida, 1986), made the communicative approach predominant. When one proceeds from the level of gramatical categories (which are largely implicit) to the level of words, which are symbols for dynamic and explicit features of culture, one is obliged to interpret the meaning of such linguistic units in light of the cultural context. That is to say, the meaning of a unit must be described in terms of the sum total of what it signals in all the contexts in which it is used. (Nida, 1975:6). The communicative perspective demonstrates the significance of several fundamental elements, such as: source, message, receptor, feedback, noise, setting and medium. It also analyzes the problem of encoding and decoding. Communicative approach focuses upon various processes in communication and because of that the relation between sociolinguistics and translation is a very natural one. Any approach to translating established on communication theory has to give great attention to the paralinguistic and extralingustic characteristics of oral and written messages. For persuasive and good outcome, form and content must be inseparable. Eqivavalence is also Nida`s preoccupation. He rejects †free† versus †literal† debate in favour of the concept of formal and dynamic eqivalence – a concept that shifts the emphasiz to the target audience. Eugene Nida`s scientific approach has evolved into a quest for a more systematic classifications of all translation theories, which should be based on linguistics, philology and semiotics. 6. Sociosemiotic Perspective on Translation Sociosemiotic approach to translation has been undertaken by de Ward, Nida and Toury. Language must be viewed as a shared set of habits using the voice to communicate. Language experts point out that the existence of shared values and of regular communication patterns requires empirical investigation. To the extent that speakers share knowledge of the communicative constrants and options govering a significiant number of social situations, they can be said to be members of the same speech community. Since such shared knowledge depends on intensity of  contact and communication networks, speech community boundiers tend to coincide with wider social units, such as countries, tribes, religious or ethnic groupings. (Gumperz and Hymes,1986:16). Scholars indicate that members of the same speech community need not all speak the same language nor use the same lingistic forms on similar occassions: All that is required is that there be at least one language in common and that rules governing basic communicative strategies be shared so that speaker can decode the social meaning carried by alternative modes of  communication. (Gumprez and Hymes, 1986:16). On the other hand, the primary concern of the translator is to transfer the meaning of the source language to the target language. Meaning is the point of departure and the end product of translation operations. It is neither possible nor desirible to reproduce every aspect of meaning for every word in a source text. We have to try, as much as possible, to convey the meaning of key words which are focal to understanding and developement of a text, but we cannot and should not distract the  reader by looking at every word in isolation and attempting to present him/her with a full linguistic account of its meaning. (Baker,1992:26). Semiotics is the scientific study of properties of signing systems, whether natural or artificial. In its oldest sense, it refers to the study within philosophy of sign and symbol systems in general. The modern use of the word covers the investigation of patterned human communication in all its modes. Sociosemiotic approach to translation uses a realistic epistemology that describes the real world. Its starting point is verbal creativity. Sociosemiotic perspective also appreciates the adaptility of the language, the blurred limitations of usage and the ambiguity of meaning, which makes language such a sophisticated tool for dialogue. Besides, this approach is fundamentally interdisciplinary, regarding the multiplicity of codes. In linguistic communication, as in any other communication, there are at least five essential elements involved: 1. the topic (the message transmitted), 2. the code (the system of symbols with which the message is processed and sent out),  3.  the sender (the encoder of the message), 4. the receiver (the decoder of the message), 5. the channel of contact (between the sender and the receiver). Each of these categories of sociosemiotic meaning is related primarily to one or more of these five elements. The complete indications of sociosemiotic theories of translation, are only now appearing. However, they possess the potential for becoming very important perceptives for more definable and adequate outcomes. 7. Conclusion These four major perspectives on the problems of translating do not ivalidate one another. On the contrary, they contribute to a better understanding of interlingual communication. These diverse approaches to the problems of translating are essentialy matters of different perspectives. If the focus of attention is on particular texts (and especially if these are of so-called literary quality), the underlying theory of translation is best regarded as philological. If, however, the focus of attention is on the correspondance in language form and content, that is, on the structural differences between the source and receptor languages, the corresponding theory may be regarded as linguistic. If the focus is on translation as a part of an actual communication process, the corresponding theories may be regarded as communitave. If the focus is on plasticity of language, the corresponding theories may be regarded as sociosemiotic. The purposes of translation are so diverse, the texts so different, and the receptors so varied that one can readily understand how and why many distinct formulations of principles and practises of translation have been proposed. All who have written seriously on translating agree that translators should know both the source and the receptor language, should be familiar with the subject matter, and should have some facility of expression in the receptor language. In discussing the various theories of translation, it is important to recognize that these theories are seldom developed in comprehensive form. In most cases, the theories are far more implicit than explicit. But, many scholars point out that a good transltion can be recognized very easily. In fact this type of translation is distinguished by its elegance and  concision, its attention to natural word order, to the deployment of clauses and phrases more frequently used than their formal equivalent in source language: a good translation is deft, neat and closely shadowing its original. (Newmark, 1991:34). However, the fact that patterns of human behaviour are constantly subject to change means that literary taste and judgement with respect to types of translation also change. There is, therefore, no permanent set of criteria for judging the acceptability of translation, but change also implies fluctuation in judgement. Accordingly, one must expect that over a period of time not only will the attitudes of many people change with respect to a translation, but the same individual may react to a particular translation in different ways at different times, depending on his own emotional state or needs. It seems to me that language experts will perhaps invent some new approach to translation. However, despite the fact that scholars have different opinions about perspectives on translation, translation will never cease to exist. Good translators love their work because it is useful and creative. They love exploring the wods, which are a mirror of their times – of the events, the preoccupations, the inventions and discoveries. Every word represents a treasure of mankind`s wisdom. In my opinion, we can learn so much from the act of translation when we are involved in the process. We can learn about our own writing, our language, foreign language and about language itself. Bibiliography 1. Baker, Mona. (1992). In Other Words. London: Routledge. 2. Das, Bijay Kumar. (2008). A Handbook of Translation Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers &Distributors. 3. Gumprez, John and Hymes, Del. (1986). Directions in Sociolinguistics. New York: Basil Blackwell Inc. 4. Jin, Di and Nida, A. Eugene. (2006). On Translation. Hong Kong: City University Hong Kong Press. 5. Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies. New York:Routlege. 6. Newmark, Peter. (1991). About Translation. UK:Multilingual Matters. Ltd. 7. Nida, A. Eugene. (1975). Language Structure and Translation. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 8. Riccardi, Allesandra. (2002). Translation Studies: perspectives on emerging discipline. Cambridge: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. 9. Ruber, Paula and Rosman, Abraham. (2003). Translating Cultures. Oxford:Berg. 10. Schulte, Rainer and Biguent, John. (1992). Theories of Translation. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Contents 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 2. Theories of Translation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 3. Philological Perspective on Translation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 4. Linguistic Perspective on Translation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 5. Communicative Perspective on Translation†¦.. 7 6. Sociosemiotic Perspective on Translation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 8 7. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 8. Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 12 9. Contents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13

Critical Response of an image Essay

Advertisement is a notice or announcement in a public medium promoting a product, service, or event or publicizing. It is also bringing into awareness a new product or idea. Advertising generally tries to sell the things that consumers want even if they should not wish for them. Advertising things that consumers do not need for is not effective use of the advertiser’s money. A majority of what advertisers sell consists of customer items like food, clothing, cars and services†¦ things that people desire to have. On the other hand it is believed by some advertising experts that the greatest influence in advertising happens in choosing a brand at the point of sale. Advertising appeals to consumers through common images; the logo used is well-designed and there is a clear separation of art from commerce. Advertisers use these iconic images to appeal to consumers since they symbolize or stand directly for something. The image for MacDonald’s symbolizes its quality. Therefore, advertisers use these images to communicate much more than words, since they seem to convey the message without too much effort. According to McDonald’s website, their mission statement is â€Å"to be our customers’ favorite place and way to eat. The worldwide operations have been aligned around a global strategy called the Plan to win centering on the five basics of an exceptional customer experience – People, Products, Place, Price and Promotion. It’s committed to improving the operations and enhancing the customers’ experience. For decades, Macdonald’s has maintained a broad advertising campaign. In addition to the media, the company makes considerable use of signage and billboards, sporting events and coolers of drinks with their logo for all kinds of events In the case of McDonald’s advertising the texts used are effective. They have contributed in attracting targeted clients to the company. The wordings are extremely pleasing and successful at getting the consumers to buy the products. The phrase ‘I’m Lovin’ it’ which is used in one of the advertisements, indicates a piece of advertising that is particularly striking. According to Cross â€Å"propagandas is simply a means of persuasion†, which they have applied that to their place because it is evidently an artistic expression, yet is trying to sell something to the consumers. The company’s effectively is truthful since the business brings in new customers and creates new products. The company released a burger that is low fat, and which targeted adults in response to the consumers’ desire for healthier options. The company has learned from its previous mistakes, like going after the wrong target market of adults instead of young adults. This however, resulted to a turn around strategy, which later led to increase in sale and profits. McDonald’s has managed to implement strategies that satisfy the changing need of the customer. The company, being an international restaurant within the quick service restaurant, requires a very high level of promotional campaigns to remain competitive. This has been so, since some of the most memorable commercials in fast food industry have emerged from this particular company. Effective speaking has contributed to its world-wide expansion and in its listing on the public stock markets. With the expansion of McDonald’s to a worldwide market, the company has become a symbol of globalization. At the same time, it has acted as the spread of the American system of living. Its prominence has also resulted to regular topics of public debates on obesity, business ethics and consumer responsibility. The company also introduced a cafà © style in accompaniment to the restaurant. To accommodate the recent trend of high quality coffee and recognition of coffee shops in general. A number of locations are connected to convenience stores and gas stations, this level of achievement is an indication of effective advertising or else truthful rhetoric. The corporation also earns revenue as an investor in properties, as an operator and franchiser of restaurants. The company’s business model is slightly different from other fast- food chains. In addition, franchising fees and marketing fees are calculated as a proportion of sales. Many researchers, including some writers believe there is a connection between advertisement and harmful behaviors. Some suggest that advertisements affect children negatively especially young women. Lutz argues that the manner in which advertisers modify the meaning of words is able to have a harmful effect on languages and how it is used. The author believes that the relationship amid humans and any form of culture can be complicated. However there is no denial that there is a relationship between behavior and advertising. On the other hand, it is not convincing on the directness and similarity about the relationship between media and advertising. Lutz continues to argue that advertisers use language to imply a great thing about products and services without promising anything at all. With extensive skill, advertisers can create an advertisement that makes us to believe that a particular product is better than it is without having to lie about it. (Lutz, 448) According to Machesney, adverting must build a brand while speaking with one voice. They develop economies in the creative process, while maximizing its local effectiveness and it increases the company’s speed of implementation. It is the key to determining success of the organization. The ability to identify the key of an ad that contributes to its success leads to maximization of the economy of scale. (Machesney, 265) Critics argue that commercialization of all fields of society, increases in consumption and wastes resources; privatization of public space and the negative influence on the lifestyle is due to overrated advertising. Advertising to some extent has contributed tremendously to destroying non-material possessions. Public service adverting is an adverting technique used in promoting goods and services. It is crucial in forming, educating and motivating the public about non commercial issues like conserving energy, deforestation and political ideology. It is an influential and educational tool that is capable of motivating and reaching larger audiences. Adverting justifies its existence when used in the public interest. It is too much a powerful tool to be used for commercial purposes only. Infomercials are televisions commercials with a longer format; they are very useful in creating an impulse purchase, so that the moment the consumer observes the presentation, it is followed by immediate purchase of the product through the advertised toll free number. Infomercials describe, display and frequently demonstrate products and their features. They commonly have testimonials from industry professionals and consumers. According to Williamson, press advertising is an influential means of advertising. It describes advertising in printed medium such as newspapers, journals or magazines. This involves everything from media with a broad readership base. It allows private companies or individuals to purchase a small targeted advertisement at a low fee to advertise their products and services. (Williamson, 255) Celebrity branding is another powerful form of advertising that mainly focuses on using a celebrity popularity to gain recognition for the product. Celebrities are frequently involved in advertising campaigns like televisions or print adverts to advertise general or specific program. This can lead to great success if it is endorsed by various companies, and practiced prudently. Online advertising is the most recent and productive form of advertising. It reaches a massive audience at the same time being affordable, as compared to other mediums. This is achieved by the use of World Wide Web to express the purpose of delivering marketing messages to draw customers.